Inside the sun there is the nucleus, the radiation zone and the convection zone. The atmosphere of the sun is formed by the photosphere, chromosphere, a transition region and the solar corona also called the white corona or Fraunhoffer corona.
Figure 4: Internal structure of the sun. Sunlight is the main source of energy for the earth. Only part of the solar radiation forms the light that is visible to our eyes, with wavelengths corresponding to the seven colors, in the following ascending order of energy: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is what promotes the tanning of our skin, but if we overexpose ourselves without protection, it can cause cancer. Infrared solar radiation, responsible for warming the earth, contributes to the greenhouse effect. Part of the infrared solar radiation that reaches the atmosphere returns to space, mainly reflected by clouds. Infrared solar radiation reaching the earth's surface is largely absorbed by soil, water and living things.
These heated surfaces emit infrared radiation back into the atmosphere, most of which is absorbed by greenhouse gases and trapped in the atmosphere. The atmosphere thus prevents heat from completely dissipating, thus preventing the earth from cooling. Only a small amount of infrared radiation returns to space. According to Marine Benoit, unmatched resolution images show us the sun like never before.
We owe these images to the Daniel K. Inouye terrestrial solar telescope, which is scheduled to officially enter service in Hawaii in the course of [8]. Figure 5 shows the surface of the sun photographed for the first time with such a level of precision.
Figure 5: Photo of the Sun's surface obtained with the Daniel K. Inouye terrestrial solar telescope. What exactly we see in the images of the terrestrial solar telescope, Daniel K. Inouye , compiled in a short video of the National Solar Observatory NSO are convection cells, formed under the impulse of gas rising from the sun's core towards its surface. Releasing energy as it cools, the plasma dives inward, forming small, granular and mobile structures.
It is possible to clearly see in these images the smallest, whose size barely reaches 30 kilometers. DKIST will enter service in the coming months and is expected to collect a very large amount of data about our closest star for five years more than anything we have been able to learn about the Sun in all of human history. The sun is responsible for giant eruptions of charged particles known as coronal mass ejections that are large eruptions of high temperature ionized gas from the solar corona.
Most ejections originate from active regions of the solar surface. The expelled gas is part of the solar wind and when it hits the earth's magnetic field, it can cause geomagnetic storms causing the northern lights phenomenon, damaging the media and the electricity supply. The sun is the center of the solar system.
All other bodies in the solar system, such as planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets and dust, as well as all satellites associated with these bodies, rotate around the sun. The sun is responsible for The distance from earth to the sun is about million kilometers. The Sun like the other stars has its own light. It is different from the moon that only reflects sunlight. Figure 6: The solar system.
For decades, Pluto was considered one of the planets in the solar system, but in , the International Astronomical Union IAU classified this celestial body as a "dwarf planet". Third planet from the sun, the earth has only one natural satellite, the moon, located about thousand kilometers away from our planet. At each time of the year, the intensity of sunlight can vary a lot and, therefore, we have the seasons on earth. In autumn and winter, sunlight is less intense.
At these two times of the year, the sun shines for less time and because of this we have the impression that the days are smaller and the nights bigger, because the sun rises later than usual and sets earlier as well.
The opposite is true in summer and spring, that is, the sun gets brighter and brighter, rises earlier and sets later, so we have the impression that the days are longer and the nights shorter. The sun is very important to us humans, not only because we need it to eat plants and animals, but also because it is responsible for making our bones stronger. Bones need vitamin D to get stronger and the only way we can get this vitamin is by being exposed to sunlight for a few minutes of the day.
Without sunlight, our bones would become weak and break very easily. As research has progressed, it is now known that vitamin D from the sun can provide us with other health benefits, such as weight loss, strengthening our immunity, prevention of type 2 diabetes and hypertension, and be related to the formation of various hormones. Solar energy is stored in glucose by living organisms through photosynthesis, a process on which, directly or indirectly, all living beings that inhabit our planet depend.
A plant uses the energy supplied by the sun to boost photosynthesis and provide food for growth. As a byproduct, oxygen is released. Animals such as cows, for example, feed on plants and convert them into energy, nutrients, so they can grow. Solar energy is also responsible for weather phenomena and climate on earth. There is a very important relationship between solar energy and the oceans, as they are very important for maintaining the thermal temperature balance on the planet.
The warming of the oceans happens from the surface to the bottom by the convection process. Sunlight that reaches the oceans is partially transformed into heat, which is reflected or transmitted, mainly by wave generated turbulence, to the deepest water layers up to about m deep.
In addition to the vertical distribution of heat to about m depth, surface ocean currents redistribute absorbed heat and transfer this heat to the atmosphere, determining local changes in climate. In the oceans, the daily variation in temperature is generally lower than on the continent.
In addition, they retain more heat and heat more slowly than terrestrial soil. Because of this, the oceans contribute directly to climate moderation, as the heat reserve in the waters acquired in the warmer months is partly dissipated in the colder months. In addition to trapping and distributing heat, oceans also participate in controlling the planet's temperature because they remove about one-third of carbon dioxide from human activity from atmospheric air, which reduces the amount of this gas in the air and, consequently, diminishes its effect in global warming.
Fluctuations in solar activity have a noticeable effect on the earth's climate, discovered by a group of researchers from Switzerland, who managed to estimate for the first time the influence of the sun on the global warming of planet earth.
Financed by the Swiss National Fund, scientists have found that, after a high solar intensity phase after , the sun's activity will decline soon. The study predicts that weaker radiation from the star may contribute to a total reduction in earth's temperature of 0. This effect, however, will not compensate for the warming of planet earth induced by human activities, which caused an increase of approximately one centigrade degree in global temperature in comparison with the numbers recorded in the pre-industrial era.
The discovery of this reduction in solar activity is "important" and can help to deal with the consequences of climate change.
Precious time can be gained if the sun's activity decreases and if there is a slight reduction in the peak of terrestrial temperatures.
It is scientifically known that all life on earth will end when our sun reaches the end of its existence within 5 billion years by becoming a red giant that will swallow the earth. Astronomers' calculations indicate that when the sun becomes a red giant, the diameter of the sun in its equator line will overtake planet Mars, consuming all the rocky planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. And that will indeed be the end of planet earth. The red giants are stars that are already at an advanced stage of their life and considerably increase their mass due to the end of their hydrogen, usually reaching up to 8 times the mass of our sun.
When this happens, the solar system becomes a chaos and the sun loses a tremendous amount of mass. As it grows, it loses mass, causing the planets to lose their orbits. The Sun will die and end our solar system. According to the authors, when the sun becomes a red giant 7. The sun will expand and this will happen relatively quickly when it depletes hydrogen in its core over a period of 5 million years.
The sun will then enter its brief phase of helium burning, which will last another million years. At this point it will be beyond mercury's orbit and then will reach venus's orbit. According to scientists, when the sun reaches the earth, it will have lost 4.
In fact, long before this stage of the sun, the habitable zone in which our planet is located will disappear completely. Astronomers predict that this will occur in about 1 billion years when the sun will migrate out of earth's orbit. The earth's atmosphere will then be saturated with steam, some will rise to the stratosphere, and there ultraviolet solar radiation will separate the hydrogen present in the water, which, when free, will be much lighter and will be lost in space.
It will be the end of the oceans and water on planet earth forever. Moreover, eventually it will turn into a globe of molten lava.
The sun, in turn, will turn into a white dwarf which is the name given to this star after its death. After being a red giant, the Sun becomes a celestial body composed of a carbon core and still some helium and hydrogen melting in the crust.
All this means to say that we will face the death of our species with the disappearance of the sun and the earth unless humanity promotes sufficient technological advancement that makes it possible to leave the solar system and reach a new planet in another solar system that is habitable for the human beings.
Earth formation is estimated to have occurred approximately 4. The most accepted theory today about the origin of the solar system, and consequently of our planet, is the solar nebula theory. This theory admits that the planets in the solar system, including the earth, formed from the collapse of a cloud that was spinning at high speed and contracted. It is believed that the sun was formed from the concentration of the central part of the cloud, and the planets from the remaining particles.
Some theories say that life appeared on earth a billion years after its formation [10]. Earth is one of the eight planets that make up the solar system, located in the Milky Way. It is considered the largest in diameter and density among the rocky planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Earth planet is one of the planets that are part of the solar system, being the third closest planet to the sun. Earth has the largest natural satellite in the solar system, moon.
Based on geodesy, which is the science that makes the study about the dimensions, shape and gravity of the planet allows us to affirm that earth has a rounded shape. Of all the planets in the solar system, Earth is the one with favorable temperatures for the development and proliferation of life, because our planet is neither too hot nor too cold. Despite the great astronomical discoveries, it cannot be said that there is a planet with characteristics similar to those of the earth in the universe capable of providing the existence of living beings.
The elements that favor life on earth are called the biosphere or "sphere of life" that is composed of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere formed approximately 3. The mentioned elements interact with each other and with the living beings present on planet earth animals, plants and man. In addition to presenting favorable conditions for the existence of life, the earth also has natural resources renewable and non-renewable that promote the maintenance of this existence.
It is through these resources that living beings maintain themselves, as mineral resources, energy, food, among others are used. In the midst of evolutionary history, man adapted to the conditions presented by the earth and improved his skills, removing from it what was necessary for his survival.
As for its shape, the earth corresponds to a spheroid, having flat poles. The general data for planet earth are as follows:. Planet earth is composed of layers that go from the earth's surface to the core [11].
Different types of ores and gases form all of these layers, although the main ones are iron, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, nickel, sulfur and titanium. The existence of water in its liquid state, together with the presence of oxygen and the ability to recycle carbon dioxide make the Earth a planet with unique characteristics. The earth has its internal structure divided into: earth's crust, mantle and core Figure 7. Figure 7 : Internal structure of earth planet.
The earth's crust is also known as the lithosphere and corresponds to the outermost layer of earth, formed by rocks and minerals, such as silicon, magnesium, iron and aluminum.
It has an average of 10 kilometers under the oceans and between 25 and kilometers under the continents. It contains continents, islands and the ocean floor. In addition, it is observed that it is not a solid layer, as there are divisions that form large rock blocks known as tectonic plates, which move and can cause tremors on the earth's surface.
The mantle is located between the earth's crust and the core. It is known as the intermediate layer, which is divided into an upper mantle and a lower mantle. It can have a depth of about 30 to 2, km below the crust and, unlike of the crust, the mantle is not solid. The movement of magma, known as convection currents, causes the movement of rock blocks that make up the earth's crust.
The core is the innermost layer of Earth and is divided into outer and inner core. It is formed by iron, silicon, nickel and, despite the high temperatures that should keep these compounds in a liquid state, the core presents high pressure, which ends up grouping these substances, keeping them solid.
In addition to the internal structure, there is also the external structure that corresponds to the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere that offer the conditions favorable to the existence of life on planet earth Figure 8.
Figure 8: External structure of earth planet. The outer layers of earth are biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Biosphere corresponds to the set of ecosystems that comprise earth. Basically, it concerns the groups of living beings that inhabit it. These ecosystems are found from the highest points on the planet to parts of the ocean floor. Atmosphere corresponds to a gaseous layer that surrounds the entire planet earth.
It is formed by gases maintained by gravity, whose main function is to protect the planet from the emitted solar radiation, filtering it, in addition to maintaining the average temperature of the earth, making sure that there is no great thermal amplitude. Atmosphere prevents earth from being hit, too, by rock fragments coming from outer space. This layer has the division of the sub-layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
Lithosphere is the outermost solid layer of a rocky planet and consists of rocks and soil. In the case of earth, it is formed by the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle.
Hydrosphere corresponds to the layer that comprises the water bodies of Planet earth. It covers not only the oceans, but also the seas, rivers, lakes and groundwater. One of humanity's greatest fears is that earth is on a collision course with some giant asteroid that has the potential to annihilate us completely. Fear is by no means unfounded because these monsters exist in space and can hit earth. In fact, the history of our planet is full of these impacts.
While still in formation, the earth was bombed more frequently. Most of them disintegrate, however some manage to reach the surface and cause damage, like the object that hit the city of Chelyabinsk, in Russia [12]. We must not forget that the extermination of the dinosaurs occurred between and million years ago due to an impact from an asteroid 10 km in diameter that generated an explosion similar to trillion tons of TNT. What would happen to our planet if it collided with a big asteroid?
The discovery channel made a simulation that answers this question. Such an episode would decree the end of life on earth. Watch Interviews. Raymond Kurzweil. Nick Bostrom. Gregory Benford. Michio Kaku. Owen Gingerich. Jared Diamond. Steven J. Frank Drake. Frank J. Fine-Tuning of the Universe? Breathtaking Universe Alien Intelligences?
The distance separating each individual star is incomprehensibly vast. Even the regions that are densely packed — like globular clusters and nebular clouds — are very spacious. However, new life is imminent. Along with absorbing all of the stars, planets, and black holes of Andromeda, the cache of the raw materials for star formation will combine, triggering the birth of hundreds of millions of new stars.
But from a planet orbiting a star in a distant globular cluster, a still more glorious dawn awaits. Not a sunrise, but a galaxy rise. A morning filled with billion suns, the rising of the Milky Way.
After the merger is complete, the dust will finish settling, leaving behind scant evidence to suggest an epic merger took place at all. However, by observing white dwarfs and calculating their age and their concentration of heavy metals , astronomers may be able to deduce the existence of an event that triggered furious star formation within the galaxy.
Such an event could only be one thing: a galaxy merger. After an uncertain number of years, new star formation will halt altogether in the newly formed elliptical galaxy. Once the last remaining bits of material for star formation are gone, a galaxy almost entirely devoid of gas and dust will remain. Moreover, some of the most famous far-off nebulae will be gone. It is much too far away and is traveling way too fast to ever reach our corner of the universe, no matter how much time the light has to traverse spacetime.
In a similar frame of mind, this period signals the regression of the universe. Instead of being diverse, colorful, and bright, as it is now, it devolves into the universe it once was long before Earth was even around: the cosmic dark ages. In a trillion years , evidence of the Big Bang in the form of the cosmic microwave background radiation, which was created a mere , years after the birth of the universe, will grow dim to the point of invisibility.
From there, it will then be lost forever, perhaps leading future astronomers to believe the universe is static and unchanging. However, future generations may eventually discover the process of nucleosynthesis the fusion of heavy elements from lighter ones in the core of red dwarf stars, which are smaller, dimmer, cooler, and much more common than stars like our Sun.
They employ an internal process that allows them to burn for trillions of years. Due to a number of obstacles, one of which is the dwindling supply of star formation materials, the production of stars will ultimately halt, leaving behind nothing but red dwarf stars. There will be no more supernova blasts to use as standard candles, no more food to quench the insatiable appetite of black holes, no new planets, and no more cosmic nebulae. The last is important because such nebular clouds are key to kick-starting the star formation process.
On this note, one paper has suggested that this process has begun already and more than 95 percent of the stars that will ever live have already been born. Another contributing factor to this is the perplexing existence of a little thing that is driving the universe apart, something we call dark energy. With all of the distant galaxies red-shifted out of view, how would the existence of this elusive force be known?
These stars are usually the lone survivors of a binary or multiple star system that went awry.
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